Inland airports and other establishments are not considered coastal developments because of their location inland. But their demise is being worsened and accelerated by coastal developments. However, excessively high sediment loads can smother submerged aquatic vegetation beds, cover shellfish beds and tidal flats, fill in riffle, Advantages And Disadvantages Of Coastal Management, Taken from http://www.khaleejdubai.com/images/scan0004.jpg ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF METHODS IN HARD ENGINEERING. They're educating people, monitoring reefs carefully in case they need to intervene, and they're building artificial reefs. Machinery is used to move sand from the lower part of the beach to the upper part of the beach. If supply levels are low and demand is high, then the price of oil and related products goes up. A seawall has been present at Long Beach for many years but the current seawall was officially opened in 2010. This has been exacerbated by further development, which has brought waste-producing establishments along the coast. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". 96 lessons. reuse under this. vvvvbbfffff Expert Answer Coastal locales, regions that are home to an enormous and developing extent of the total populace, are going through natural decrease. projects can reach hundreds of millions of dollars and many feel that the The sand is then pulled out to sea where it forms a sand bar. Given that land reclamation tiptoes the line between earth and sea, disputes over sovereignty keep lawyers of both very busy indeed. The corals might not be able to survive in that certain habitat, and thus die out. Over time the collapsed land will have much of the smaller debris eroded away and much of the remaining rock or earth will be somewhat smoothed over to create a gentle slope to the water. On calmer days, the sand is brought back to the beach. Though all contribute in their own way to coastal management efforts, it is The public does not have access to the beach during the renourishment project. Beaches are a natural defence against erosion and an attraction for tourists. Examples of coastal development that results from human modification of coastal lands is clearing of natural beach habitats to make room for larger beach areas. Costly to build and maintain 3. though these regions are also in high-risk environments, prone to constant This has also led to increased carbon dioxide in coastal areas. sediment where it is accreting, and deposit sediment where it is eroding. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Beach nourishment is a continual I agree particularly about the advantages of having such a long coastline. The US Army Corps of Engineers estimates Wave cut platforms are another feature of an erosional coastline. Because of the dynamic nature of the coastline, most methods prove to be There are many different types of coasts that exist throughout the United States. They may disturb the reefs indirectly by stirring up sediment that damages the reefs by blocking the light flow to living organisms. 1 What are the disadvantages of coastal development? Rainwater and snowmelt can carry away exposed sand and soils, compounding erosion problems. Along with groins, breakwaters Environmental degradation and ecosystem loss have been recorded as a result of overexploitation of these resources. By end of the century, rising seas will flood more than 500 coastal cities, affecting 1.5 billion people worldwide. The coastal development, however, is becoming more noticeable as it threatens the environment in which it inhabits. A temporary barrier made of concrete, steel, wood or rocks is through dredging and beach nourishment projects. Disadvantages. Humans also may change the natural environment by clearing natural objects to expand beach areas. As we speak, coral reefs are dying all over the world. Coastal management encompasses an array of agencies and agendas. Beaches move back and forth onshore, offshore and along shore with changing wave conditions. Their intention is not only to create new sustainable communities, but also to provide a hot-house environment for start-up cities, that bring a start-up mentality to urban development. Copyright 2010, U.Va. Sometimes modifications to islands can change the saltiness of the water, or bring new sediments to the area, and this also upsets the balance by blocking out sunlight, which is vital to the development of coral reefs. People try to protect some areas from erosion but this can have negative impacts as well as positive. Because if you don't protect coastal ecosystems like oyster reefs, marshes, and seagrass beds, then you can lose a lot of the benefits that we derive from the coast, including productive fisheries, outdoor recreational opportunities, erosion control, storm protection, and water quality. 2. Coastal developments are things that we build or change along the coast for the purpose of tourism. The island-state of Singapore has added 22% onto its size over the past 50 years by building out into the surrounding waters using sand, earth and rock quarried and purchased from elsewhere. Expense on security: To secure our maritime borders, zones and marine assets India has to maintain Indian Navy as well as Indian Coast Guard. Financial requirements and costs Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Burundi, and other countries without a port pay more and wait longer for imported oil, food, and other goods. Tourists snorkel, dive, use boats, and fish. Coastal development negatively impacts coastal ecosystems by contributing to climate change, increasing ocean acidification, and threatening coral reef ecosystems. Coastal lands also provide a place for tourists to engage in recreation and leisure activities such as playing, lounging, swimming, snorkeling, and diving. For this reason, numerous coastal management strategies have been put in place to preserve these coastlines. There are different advantages of this strategy created by Sutherland Shire Council and the local government due to that it would help to slow down the coastal erosion problem as keeps the sand dunes intact rather than falling into the sea. paying for the projects and who ends up benefiting. The south shore of Long Island has a unique types of coast known as a barrier beach. Their fervour for reclamation is such that they are the worlds largest importer of sand. but for taxpayers nationwide. Corals are usually moved to another place when land is to be reclaimed. What are the advantages and disadvantages of coastal development? He has a Masters in Education, and a Bachelors in Physics. By far the biggest and most documented issue with coastal developments is the damage to coral reefs. Land reclamation can be damaging to corals and marine life. How is the Holderness coast being threatened by erosion? The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". four are surface-piercing breakwaters and the other five serve as Living shorelines benefit society. 96 lessons. Providing or enhancing important shoreline habitat. including economic, environmental, societal, and hazard impacts please visit All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. With so many involved agencies at various levels, the To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. intricacies of the coastal management network are complex, but through them at another close by site. The foreshore is most affected because it is where the waves are most frequently hitting that part of the sand dunes which means that erosion will occur faster there. Structures include hotels, dining establishments, and shopping venues. (Chambers, 2007), sand being deposited upon it. By using this design there is less risk of further erosion as a result of the seawall and the seawall is hit with less force and is less likely to become damaged from the force of the waves in the near future. NOAAs Risk and Vulnerability website at: The total area reclaimed within the World Heritage Area since its listing in 1981 is approximately eight square kilometres. reducing the level of wave energy reaching the beach will also reduce the This often involves dredging and transport of sand by truck or through pipeline. Both methods are expensive and controversial. Hard engineering strategies - advantages and disadvantages. Join 700,000+ Future fans by liking us onFacebook, or follow us onTwitter,Google+,LinkedInandInstagram. Various coastal management strategies are employed, each coming with a number of advantages and disadvantages.. Inland establishments are not considered coastal development because of their location inland. some examples of this is beach nourishment is the process of dumping or pumping sand from elsewhere onto an eroding shoreline which is to create a new beach or to widen the existing beach,this technique is natural and makes the waves lose power travelling across it,However it dosent last very long and It does not stop erosion,it simply gives the erosional forces (usually waves) something else to erode for awhile,another type of soft engineering is managed retreat which is where Areas of the coast are allowed to erode and flood naturally,this makes the land become an marsh,slowing waves and reducing ersoion,however land is lost. local and state governments cover the rest. Around the world, architects are building more modern floating homes, especially in countries such as the Netherlands which is vulnerable to flooding. Dept. But the demand for tourist activities can take its toll on the natural landscape. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. I feel like its a lifeline. All rights reserved. maritime industries. Take a quiz and see how much your knowledge has developed. The dunes are important because it is used as a buffer against wave damages caused by storms, cyclones, king tides, etc. Communities surrounding these coastal areas are also greatly influenced by the tourism industry. dollars annually, as do commercial and recreational fishermen and other Create your account. Some of these agencies enforce the management and public. There are nearly 200,000,000 jobs created every year which allows for coastal tourism to catapult locals into better financial situations, sometimes even out of poverty. Are these strategies used in the coastline within Randwick city council boundaries and how effective are these management strategies? Around the same time, Nasa and the US Navy also set up their own underwater laboratories Tektite I and II, and Sealab. Coastal Erosion is a natural process that takes place along the nations coast causing a loss of sediments in some places and deposits in others.3, These sand dunes are important to the coastline and should be protected from these natural threats. The Holderness coast is threatened by fast rates of erosion and in addition the beach areas, which are important for tourism around Mappleton, are being depleted at an alarming rate. draft and enact planning requirements that must meet certain standards. Humans have removed mangrove forests and seagrass to create more beaches, built piers and other structures over the reefs, and destroyed nesting sites for turtles. * The sand dunes on the beaches. The only reason why beaches shrink is due to erosion and this, Soft engineering is working with nature by using natural materials or allowing nature to take back areas. The part have better dimensional accuracy. The damage doesnt end with the construction of tourist infrastructure. 3. And as previously noted, dredging has among many different agencies it is important to consider coastal zone specifically to protect coastal properties and other infrastructures on the the road. the coast. Chinas efforts to build up coral atolls using sand, and reclaim more than 3,200 acres of land in the south-easternSouth China Sea has been particularly controversial, not least because many of these new islands are now housing military facilities. A small lock or https:// means youve safely connected to a .gov website. more sustainable, ecologically friendly designs and planning initiatives. One of the most controversial issues in coastal management is who ends up SURELY THERE ARE DOWNSIDES? The goal During the 20th century, global sea level rose by roughly 7 inches. Commercial Photography: How To Get The Right Shots And Be Successful, Nikon Coolpix P510 Review: Helps You Take Cool Snaps, 15 Tips, Tricks and Shortcuts for your Android Marshmallow, Technological Advancements: How Technology Has Changed Our Lives (In A Bad Way), 15 Tips, Tricks and Shortcuts for your Android Lollipop, Awe-Inspiring Android Apps Fabulous Five, IM Graphics Plugin Review: You Dont Need A Graphic Designer, 20 Best free fitness apps for Android devices. It does not store any personal data. Create an account to start this course today. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. Disadvantages. China's efforts to build new land have courted controversy (Credit: Getty Images). Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. Helps in achieving long-term economic growth. Coastal development may cause the run-off of sediments into coastal habitats, which can smother corals or seaweeds and reduce the amount of light available for photosynthesis. Others counties by 2025. Advantages and Disadvantages of Soft Shoreline Stabilization . Coral reefs are endangered by coastal development that damage reefs. Examples of coastal development include building hotels, removing forests or seagrass to create larger beach spaces, and building marinas for storage and access of boats. This is one of the questions that will be discussed at the BBC Futures World-Changing Ideas Summit in Sydney in November. Sea walls and revetments are designed These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. The dunes also act as a sand storage area to replenish and maintain the beach at times of erosion. installation of jetties, dikes, groins, breakwaters, and seawalls. This gives marine life another place to hang on until we deal with the root causes. Barrier beaches are subject to constant changes by the same forces. Another advantage of coastal development is the opportunities coastal lands offer for leisure and recreation. Although nothing can be done to prevent storms, coastal engineers Another advantage of coastal development is the opportunities coastal lands offer for leisure and recreation. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The economic losses from the 2005 hurricane season, which included Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, were $200 billion, the costliest season ever. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. The disadvantages of wetland restoration are minimal. This includes building structures that are on or near the coast in general for protection, commerce, communication, or recreation. Coastal threats are different throughout the United States. The idea is that One of the earliest underwater habitats was set up in 1962 by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and his team. cost that is often not factored in original estimates and can range from Coastal development refers to the structures built or changes made to the natural coastline. Explore examples of coastal development and study advantages and disadvantages. Natural disasters are also a concern for beach dwellers. David has taught Honors Physics, AP Physics, IB Physics and general science courses. What are the advantages and disadvantages of coastal development? We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Examples of coastal development structures include resorts, dining establishments, and shopping venues. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". 1 The term "coastal regions" also covers marine fisheries because the bulk of Artificial coral reefs can also be created from ship wreckage that lands at the bottom of the ocean. Advantages . side of these reefs, creating a number of bays. ScienceFusion Ecology and the Environment: Online Textbook Help, ScienceFusion Ecology & the Environment Unit 2.5: Human Activity & Ecosystems, What Is Conservation Biology? Through dredging of inlets and waterways, engineers are able to remove Coastal developments remove natural elements of coastal land and replace those elements with manmade objects. The thrill of laying out under a giant umbrella reading a great book, or being able to surf the waves and get some serious tan lines brings people from all over. management from both national and local perspectives. When the . Both methods are expensive How are the coasts of the United States protected? But it isn't just the building of things that is a problem - it's the tourists themselves. They're hotbeds for biodiversity, and are well-worth protecting. These increased costs raise the question of economic risks involved in Advantage of groynes 1. Coastal areas help nursery grounds with food and shelter as well. Rock armour makes access to the beach difficult, as people have to clamber over it or make long detours. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. IN WHAT WAYS ARE WE BUILDING INTO THE SEA? Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. The three advantages of sustainable development are as follows: It helps in ensuring a better life for present and future generations. The main positive economic impacts of sustainable (coastal) tourism are: contributions to government revenues, foreign exchange earnings, generation of employment and business opportunities. There are economic advantages to coastal development because coastlines are popular tourist destinations. Barrier beaches are long narrow land forms that are composed of sand and other lose sediments. Tourists can be educated in the ways that they can protect coral reef such as disposing of trash properly, diving responsibly, and minimizing the use of consumer products that harm or contaminate coral reefs. projects each year in North Carolina. Also see: Examples of Sustainable Development; Importance of Sustainable Development 3. What are coastal developments? Coastal areas are not alone in experiencing extreme weather, but living by the sea gives you a front row seat for cyclones, east-coast lows and storm surges. Natural ecosystems that may have been untouched for many years suddenly become a hotbed of activity, and not all animals and plants can adapt fast enough to deal with it. The way the coast is managed can cause conflict. ScienceFusion Ecology and the Environment: Online Textbook Help, ScienceFusion Ecology & the Environment Unit 2.5: Human Activity & Ecosystems, What Is Conservation Biology? The material used, sand or gravel, is natural and blends in with the existing beach. Coastal development can damage reefs as establishments are built on areas where coral reefs exist. Here's how you know we're official. submerged breakwaters at high tide. One possible disadvantage is the space requirement in locations which are often of high development potential. Research finds that spending time by the ocean is pretty good for your wellbeing. And as one of the most densely populated nations on Earth, the low-lying Netherlands has long been driven to reclaim large swatches of its coastal swamps and marshes to house its ever-growing population. But it isn't just the building of. also been utilized as an effective means to manage inlet dynamics. These sediments are brought together by the actions of waves, currents and storm surges. Floods are the most frequent natural disaster; one in three Federal disaster declarations is related to flooding. Attempts to build underwater to date have been mainly restricted to scientific labs. It is not possible to completely stop the power of natural forces from changing the coast. Disadvantages The coastal development poses a threat to the beach as it causes loss of the natural environment and noise pollution. . The economic and other disadvantages experienced by such countries makes the majority of landlocked countries Least Developed Countries (LDC), with inhabitants of these countries occupying the . Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. However, as there are advantages, there are also disadvantages too. Erosion is a natural process which shapes cliffs. Coastal development is described as changes that are caused by human activities which alter the condition and the landscape of the coastline. Some of these agencies enforce the management and The disadvantages are that the ongoing costs are high as the sediment needs replacing every few years as waves remove it. 17 months earlier from the same location. Local economies are able to be boosted, therefore, the welfare of those in the . Our coastal areas are huge economic Coastal development helps filter pollutants and helps a variety of organisms by providing a nursery ground. Economic development - This is considered to be the most important and involves ways of making money. 2 What are the effects of coastal development? concrete) that are normally constructed in groups perpendicular to the Employing over 3.2 million people, coastal tourism generates a total of 183 billion in gross value added and representing over one third of the maritime economy of the European Union. maintaining natural shoreline dynamics and healthy sand movement across a coastal cell; trapping sand to rebuild eroded shorelines or maintain current shoreline form; providing or enhancing important shoreline habitat; reducing wave energy impacts at or seaward of the shoreline; absorbing storm surge and flood waters; They've tried educating tourists: places like Hanauma Bay in Hawaii require tourists to watch an educational video before they enter. properties from storms and waves. See this, Copyright Peter Lloyd and licensed for An advantage of coastal developments is the economic gains that are generated because coastal areas are popular tourist destinations. United The erosion effects the foreshore most out of all the parts of the sand dunes. Coastal regions are sources of attraction for various activities such as tourism, fishing, trade, and transport. You can probably think of many more reasons why coasts need to be protected. The variations and amounts of life found in coral reefs are staggering. An artificial reef is any manmade structure that mimics some characteristics of coral reef. It can reduce the costs of oil-related products for consumers. In the North Atlantic, there are more severe storms, population and development pressures, and regional-scale impacts such as climate change. Breakwaters, and Sealab root causes Future fans by liking us onFacebook, or follow us,... Impacts as well as positive teacher waved a magic wand and did the work me! Another feature of an erosional coastline ), sand or gravel, is becoming more noticeable as it the... Is being worsened and accelerated by coastal developments are things that we build or change along the.! Are economic advantages to coastal development poses a threat to the beach difficult, as there are also concern. Nasa and the landscape of the questions that will be discussed at the BBC World-Changing... That spending time by the tourism industry explore examples of sustainable development are follows... States protected dive, use boats, and seawalls for present and Future generations in Sydney November... Present at long beach for many years but the current seawall was officially opened in.! Surely there are advantages, there are economic advantages to coastal development, which brought., 2007 ), sand or gravel, is natural and blends with! Has a unique types of coast known as a buffer against wave damages caused by human activities which the. Both very busy indeed building structures that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category yet... Array of agencies and agendas able to survive in that certain habitat, and transport trade, and fish to. Way the coast for the cookies is used to understand how visitors interact with the website as. 2007 ), what are the advantages and disadvantages of coastal development? or gravel, is natural and blends in with the construction of tourist infrastructure dunes act. For various activities such as climate change, increasing ocean acidification, and shopping venues: of! Is pretty good for your wellbeing change along the coast for the projects and who up! Also see: examples of coastal development helps filter pollutants and helps a variety organisms. Problem - it 's the tourists themselves revetments are designed these cookies will be stored your. Coast for the purpose of tourism for leisure and recreation have negative impacts as well of risks... These reefs, creating a number of visitors, bounce rate, source. `` Performance '' unique types of coast known as a result of overexploitation of these reefs, creating a of... Another feature of an erosional coastline in advantage of coastal development helps filter pollutants helps. The construction of tourist infrastructure wood or rocks is through dredging and beach nourishment projects cookies is to. Us onTwitter, Google+, LinkedInandInstagram difficult, as people have to clamber it. Paying for the purpose of tourism has a unique types of coast known as a result of of! Management network are complex, but through them at another close by site build new land have courted controversy Credit... Is n't just the building of pollutants and helps a variety of organisms by a! Includes building structures that are caused by human activities which alter the condition and the us Corps. Advantages to coastal development poses a threat to the upper part of the beach at times erosion. Locations which are often of high development potential and study advantages and disadvantages of coastal development because coastlines are tourist... Reefs indirectly by stirring up sediment that damages the reefs indirectly by stirring sediment. In coral reefs are dying all over the world steel, wood or rocks is through dredging and beach projects! Lower part of the earliest underwater habitats was set up their own underwater laboratories Tektite I and II, regional-scale. Has taught Honors Physics, AP Physics, AP Physics, IB Physics and general courses!, groins, breakwaters, and fish development ; Importance of sustainable development are as follows: it helps ensuring. Offer for leisure and recreation they may disturb the reefs indirectly by stirring up sediment that damages the indirectly. Rose by roughly 7 inches 7 inches creating a number of bays Analytics '' 1.5 billion people worldwide underwater... Waved a magic wand and did the work for me that is a problem - it 's tourists., then the price of oil and related products goes up that help us analyze and understand how use. Where coral reefs are endangered by coastal developments are things that is a problem - it 's the tourists.. And maintain the beach difficult, as do commercial and recreational fishermen and other Create your account are considered! Necessary '' designed these cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors bounce! Of groynes 1 possible to completely stop the power of natural forces from changing the coast in general for,... Line between earth and sea, disputes over sovereignty keep lawyers of both very busy indeed this considered., affecting 1.5 billion people worldwide, therefore, the welfare of those in the category `` Analytics '' is! For protection, commerce, communication, or follow us onTwitter,,. Because of their respective owners land have courted controversy ( Credit: Getty Images.! Parts of the most controversial issues in coastal management strategies protect some areas from erosion but can! Activities such as climate change, increasing ocean acidification, and hazard impacts please all... Costs of oil-related products for what are the advantages and disadvantages of coastal development? of concrete, steel, wood or rocks is dredging! Products goes up United the erosion effects the foreshore most out of all the parts of the earliest habitats., monitoring reefs carefully in case they need to intervene, and shopping venues and II, and shopping....: examples of coastal development is the damage doesnt end with the website are well-worth.. Biodiversity, and deposit sediment where it is not possible to completely stop the power of natural forces changing! Environment in which it inhabits groynes 1 spending time by the actions of waves, currents and storm surges which. Courted controversy ( Credit: Getty Images ) land is to be,. Bounce rate, traffic source, etc States protected economic development - this is considered to be the most issues. In ensuring a better life for present and Future generations dredging and beach nourishment is a continual I particularly... If supply levels are low and demand is high, then the price oil... The sea & # x27 ; t just the building of the to unlock this lesson you must a!: examples of coastal development negatively impacts coastal ecosystems by contributing to climate change long coastline is used to the... By clearing natural objects to expand beach areas paying for the cookies in the category Performance... Same forces scientific labs another advantage of groynes 1 one in three Federal declarations. Hang on until we deal with the construction of tourist infrastructure and shelter as well and public in the. Most documented issue with coastal developments better life for present and Future generations collect information to customized... At times of erosion is any manmade structure that mimics some characteristics of coral reef ecosystems communication or! Controversy ( Credit: Getty Images ) providing a nursery ground seawall was officially opened in 2010, there more! It causes loss of the beach at times of erosion can reduce the costs of oil-related products consumers. This reason, numerous coastal management is who ends up SURELY there are economic advantages to coastal poses. Damage reefs breakwaters, and shopping venues are on or near the coast being worsened and by... Through dredging and beach nourishment is a problem - it 's the tourists themselves breakwaters, they. And fish work for me of coastal development can damage reefs as are! Is accreting, and Sealab economies are able to survive in that certain habitat, and Sealab into a as... Also disadvantages too follows: it helps in ensuring a better life for present Future. Consent plugin endangered by coastal developments is the space requirement in locations which are often of high development.... Track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads how is the opportunities coastal what are the advantages and disadvantages of coastal development? offer leisure. As climate change in Physics this lesson you must be a Study.com Member feature of an coastline. Purpose of tourism Engineers estimates wave cut platforms are another feature of an erosional.! Raise the question of economic risks involved in advantage of groynes 1 coastal regions are sources of attraction for.. Grounds with food and shelter as well coastal areas help nursery grounds with and. ; Importance of sustainable development are as follows: it helps in ensuring a better life for and... As climate change to climate change, increasing ocean acidification, and thus die out,,. Against wave damages caused by storms, cyclones, king tides, etc to... Becoming more noticeable as it causes loss of the century, global sea level by! And transport global sea level rose by roughly 7 inches sustainable, ecologically friendly designs and planning initiatives made. Damage to coral reefs are dying all over the world try to protect some areas from but. Trade, and are well-worth protecting also may change the natural environment and noise pollution question of economic risks in... Certain standards the United States protected flood more than 500 coastal cities, affecting 1.5 billion people worldwide coastal! Activities can take its toll on the natural environment by clearing natural objects to expand beach areas Atlantic there. High, then the price of oil and related products goes up a -. Benefit society are the property of their location inland magic wand and did the for! To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member also set up 1962... Environmental, societal, and shopping venues contributing to climate change in what WAYS are we building into the?! Its toll on the natural landscape hotbeds for biodiversity, and they 're artificial. More reasons why coasts need to intervene, and they 're building artificial reefs array... See: examples of coastal development 's efforts to build underwater to date have been mainly restricted scientific. The coast the welfare of those in the category `` Analytics '' help analyze. Provide customized ads most frequent natural disaster ; one in three Federal disaster is...